Machin-Like Formulas

Machin-like formulas have the form

where , , and are positive integers and and are nonnegative integers. Some such formulas can be found by converting the inverse tangent decompositions for which in the table of Todd (1949) to inverse cotangents. However, this gives only Machin-like formulas in which the smallest term is .

Generalized Machin-like formulas in which the argument of the cotangents are rational numbers, including Euler's

(Lehmer 1938, Wetherfield 1996), square roots such as

or even mixed quadratic surds (Lehmer 1938) have also been considered.

A trivial one-term Machin-like formula is given by the identity

Two-term Machin-like formulas can be derived by writing

and looking for and such that

so

Machin-like formulas exist iff (7) has a solution in integers. This is equivalent to finding positive integer values , , and and integer values and such that

which occur iff

is real (Borwein and Borwein 1987, p. 345). Another equivalent formulation is to find all integer solutions to one of

for , 5, ....

There are only four such two-term formulas,

known as Machin's formula (Borwein and Bailey 2003, p. 105), Euler's Machin-like formula (Borwein and Bailey 2003, p. 105), Hermann's formula, and Hutton's formula. These follow from the identities

Three-term Machin-like formulas include Gauss's Machin-like formula

Strassnitzky's formula

which was used by Dase (Borwein and Bailey 2003, p. 106), and the following:

The first is due to Størmer, the second due to Rutherford, and the last appears in Borwein and Bailey (2003, p. 107). However, there are many other such formulas, a total of 105 of which are tabulated by Weisstein.

A total of 90 five-term Machin-like formulas are tabulated by Weisstein, including the two given by Borwein and Bailey (2003, pp. 62 and 111)

the first of which was found by high school teacher K. Takano in 1982 and the second of which was known to Störmer in 1896.

Using trigonometric identities such as

it is possible to generate an infinite sequence of Machin-like formulas. Systematic searches therefore most often concentrate on formulas with particularly "nice" properties (such as "efficiency").

The efficiency of a generalized Machin-like formula (possibly with rational, quadratic surd, or other inverse cotangent arguments) is the time it takes to calculate with the power series for inverse cotangent given by

and can be roughly characterized using Lehmer's "measure" formula

(Lehmer 1938). The number of terms required to achieve a given precision is roughly proportional to , so lower -values correspond to better sums. The best currently known efficiency is 1.51244, which is achieved by the 6-term series

discovered by C.-L. Hwang (1997). Hwang (1997) also discovered the remarkable identities

where , , , , and are positive integers, and

The following table gives the number of Machin-like formulas of terms in the compilation by Weisstein. Except for previously known identities (which are included), the criteria for inclusion are the following:

1. first term digits: measure .

2. first term = 8 digits: measure .

3. first term = 9 digits: measure .

4. first term =10 digits: measure .